Approaches to land snail shell bead manufacture in the Early Holocene of Malawi

Abstract Shell disc beads are important archeological indicators of social communication and exchange networks. There has been substantial research on ostrich eggshell (OES) beads, but little is known about the manufacture or chronology similar from land snail shells (LSS). LSS associated with Holocene hunter-gatherers in Africa, though direct dates limited to Iron Age, there no images descriptions manufacturing sequence. Here, we combine experimental data resolve chronology, operational chains, material properties bead manufacture. We then recommend apply a modified OES production sequence three Later Stone Age assemblages Kasitu Valley northern Malawi (Hora 1, Mazinga Kadawonda 1). At these sites, shows an unexpectedly high proportion Pathway 2 (disc shaping prior perforation), contrast Application red color occurred at all stages manufacture, albeit inconsistently. Production finished involved removal preforms create final product. Finally, report earliest evidence for two directly dated (~ 9500 cal BP), showing that origins beadmaking do precede Age.